Understanding the Caste System in India: Origins, Characteristics, and Modern-Day Implications
Meaning and Definitions of Caste
The caste system in India is a complex social hierarchy that has significantly influenced the country’s social, political, and economic landscape. The term ‘caste’ is derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta,’ meaning lineage or race. In the Indian context, caste refers to the hereditary social groups defined by specific occupations and social roles.
There is no exact translation in Indian languages, but varna and jati are the two most approximate terms.[27 The term caste is not originally an Indian word, though it is now widely used, both in English and in Indian languages. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it is derived from the Portuguese casta, meaning “race, lineage, breed” and, originally, “’pure or unmixed (stock)
Origins and Historical Context
The origins of the caste system are often debated among scholars. Traditional theories suggest it was instituted by the Aryans who migrated to India and established a social order based on varna, or class. Other theories, such as the racial theory proposed by H.H. Risley, argue that caste distinctions arose from racial differences. During the British Raj, the caste system was further entrenched as the British used it to administer and control the population. This period also saw the formal codification of caste identities.
MEANING OF CASTE
⦁ each of the hereditary classes of Hindu society, distinguished by relative degrees of ritual purity or pollution and of social status.
⦁ any class or group of people who inherit exclusive privileges or are perceived as socially distinct.
1. DEFINITIONS OF CASTE
According to Mazumdar and Madan — ‘Caste is a closed class’ I.e. class refers to people based on property, business, occupation I.e. one can’t change his own caste system by can change the class system and can be a member of many classes at the same time. You belong to a caste by birth and can’t change it later and one has is follow the set rules and regulations and gets punishment on their violation and one can even be thrown out of his caste. t.e., If one dares to go out of his caste he can never return. In class one may change it with effort like in an illiterate class one can became literate and therefore go over to the literate class i.e., caste is hereditary in nature and once born in a caste one can’t change it.
The development of 4 castes in India took place from the Varnas. Burun was not strictly based on birth and one could change his Varna. It was based on “Karma theory” Parashurarria became Kshatriya by karma from a Brahmin ViBhmarnitra was a Kshatri;ja and became Brahmtn. This is not allowed in caste system.
According to Herbert Risley — “Class is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name which usually denotes or is associated with specific occupation, claiming descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same heredity callings and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogenous communities.”
According to Charles Coole — “When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste.”
Ketekar — in his book “History of caste in India’ —’Caste is a social group having two characteristics (a) membership is confined to those who are born of members and
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includes all persons no born (b) the members are forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group.”
E. Blunt – “Caste is an endogamous group bearing a common name, membership of which is hereditary, imposing on its members certain restrictions in the matter of social intercourse, either following a common traditional occupation a claiming a common origin and generally regarded as forming a single homogenous community.
ORIGINS OF THE CASTE SYSTEM
Early written evidence about the caste system appears in the Vedas, Sanskrit-language texts that date from as early as 1500 BCE. The Vedas form the basis of Hindu scripture. The “Rigveda,” however, which dates from around 1700—1100 BCE, rarely mentions caste distinctions and is taken as evidence that social mobility was common in its time.
The “Bhagavad Gita,” which dates from around 200 BCE—200 CE, emphasizes the importance of caste. In addition, the Laws of Manu or Manusmriti, from the same era, defines the rights and duties of the four different castes or varnafs. Thus, it seems that the Hindu caste system began to solidify sometime between 1000 and 200 BCE.
The Caste System during Classical Indian History The caste system was not absolute during much of Indian history. For example, the renowned Gupta Dynasty, which ruled from 320 to 550, was from the Vaishpn caste rather than the Nshatripn. Many later rulers also were from different castes, such as the Madurai Nayaks, Balijas (traders) that ruled from 1559 to 1739.
From the 12th century to the 18th century, much of India was ruled by Muslims. These rulers reduced the power of the Hindu priestly caste, the. The traditional Hindu rulers and warriors, or, nearly ceased to exist in northern and central India. The and castes also virtually melded together.
Although the Muslim rulers’ faith had a strong impact on the Hindu upper castes in the centres of power, anti-Muslim feeling in rural areas actually strengthened the caste system. Hindu villagers reconfirmed their identity through caste affiliation.
Nonetheless, during the six centuries of Islamic domination (roughly 1150—1750), the caste system evolved considerably. For example, Brahmins; began to rely on farming for their income, since the Muslim kings did not give rich gifts to Hindu temples. This farming practice was considered justified so long as Shudray did the actual physical labour.
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THE BRITISH RAJ AND CASTE
When the British Raj began to take power in India in 1757, they exploited the caste system as a means of social control. The British allied themselves with the Brahmin caste, restoring some of its privileges that had been repealed by the Muslim rulers.
However, many Indian customs concerning the lower castes seemed discriminatory to the British, so these were outlawed. During the 1930s and 1940s, the British government made laws to protect the “Scheduled castes,” untouchables and low-caste people.
A movement toward the abolition of untouchability took place within Indian society in the 19th and early 20th centuries as well. In 1928, the first temple welcomed untouchables (Dalits) to worship with its upper-caste members. Mohandas Gandhi advocated emancipation for the Dalits, too, coining the term harijan or “Children of God” to describe them.
CASTE RELATIONS IN INDEPENDENT INDIA
The Republic of India became independent on August 15, 1947. India’s new government instituted laws to protect the “Scheduled castes” and tribes, which included both the untouchables and groups living traditional lifestyles. These laws include quota systems that help to ensure access to education and government posts. Because of these shifts, a person’s caste has become somewhat more of a political category than a social or religious one in modern India.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CASTE SYSTEM
⦁ Based on birth, or birth is the determinant factor of caste system. Once born in a caste he has to remain the same. States, position prestige is fixed according to his caste. i.e., ascribed. The castes are divided into sub-caste.
⦁ Endogamy and exogamy — In a caste system. There is restriction on marriage. Westermarck — “Restriction on marriage Endogamy and Exogamy are the essence of the caste system. Endogamy their one’s own caste or sub-caste. Exogamy — same caste but not same clan t.e. Gotrn.”
⦁ Occupational restriction and hereditary occupation — In caste system, occupation is fixed by your caste. It is hereditary, for e.g. a black smith son will always be a black smith.
⦁ Economic disparity — The higher caste people are generally economically better off and the lower caste people work harder and yet they get little benefit i.e. they are poorer
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THE BRITISH RAJ AND CASTE
When the British Raj began to take power in India in 1757, they exploited the caste system as a means of social control. The British allied themselves with the Brahmin caste, restoring some of its privileges that had been repealed by the Muslim rulers.
However, many Indian customs concerning the lower castes seemed discriminatory to the British, so these were outlawed. During the 1930s and 1940s, the British government made laws to protect the “Scheduled castes,” untouchables and low-caste people.
A movement toward the abolition of untouchability took place within Indian society in the 19th and early 20th centuries as well. In 1928, the first temple welcomed untouchables (Dalits) to worship with its upper-caste members. Mohandas Gandhi advocated emancipation for the Dalits, too, coining the term harijan or “Children of God” to describe them.
CASTE RELATIONS IN INDEPENDENT INDIA
The Republic of India became independent on August 15, 1947. India’s new government instituted laws to protect the “Scheduled castes” and tribes, which included both the untouchables and groups living traditional lifestyles. These laws include quota systems that help to ensure access to education and government posts. Because of these shifts, a person’s caste has become somewhat more of a political category than a social or religious one in modern India.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CASTE SYSTEM
⦁ Based on birth, or birth is the determinant factor of caste system. Once born in a caste he has to remain the same. States, position prestige is fixed according to his caste. i.e., ascribed. The castes are divided into sub-caste.
⦁ Endogamy and exogamy — In a caste system. There is restriction on marriage. Westermarck — “Restriction on marriage Endogamy and Exogamy are the essence of the caste system. Endogamy their one’s own caste or sub-caste. Exogamy — same caste but not same clan t.e. Gotrn.”
⦁ Occupational restriction and hereditary occupation — In caste system, occupation is fixed by your caste. It is hereditary, for e.g. a black smith son will always be a black smith.
⦁ Economic disparity — The higher caste people are generally economically better off and the lower caste people work harder and yet they get little benefit i.e. they are poorer
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⦁ A Particular Name: Every caste has a particular name though which we can identify it. Sometimes, an occupation is also associated with a particular caste.
⦁ The Concept of Purity and Pollution: The higher castes claimed to have ritual, spiritual and racial purity which they maintained by keeping the lower castes away through the notion of pollution. The idea of pollution means a touch of lower caste man would pollute or defile a man of higher caste. Even his shadow is considered enough to pollute a higher caste man.
⦁ Kali Pnnchnpat: The status of each caste is carefully protected, not only by caste laws but also by the conventions. These are openly enforced by the community through a governing body or board called Anti Pnnchnynt. These Pnnchnynts in different regions and castes are named in a particular fashion such as Kuldriya in Madhya Pradesh and Jo/chila in South Rajasthan.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASS AND CASTE SYSTEMS!
In Max Weber’s phraseology, caste and class are both status groups. While castes are perceived as hereditary groups with a fixed ritual status, social classes are defined in terms of the relations of production. A social class is a category of people who have a similar socio-economic status in relation to other classes in the society. The individuals and families which are classified as part of the same social class have similar life chances, prestige, style of life, attitudes etc.
⦁ In the caste system, status of a caste is determined not by the economic and the political privileges but by the ritualistic legitimation of authority. In the class system, ritual norms have no importance at all but power and wealth alone determine one’s status (Dumont, 1958).
⦁ Class system differs in many respects from other forms of stratification—slavery, estate and caste system. In earlier textbooks such as written by Maclver, Davis and Bottomore, it was observed that caste and class are polar opposites. They are antithetical to each other. While ‘class’ represents a ‘democratic society’ having equality of opportunity, ‘caste’ is obverse of it.
⦁ Castes are found in Indian sub-continent only, especially in India, while classes are found almost everywhere. Classes are especially the characteristic of industrial societies of Europe and America. According to Dumont and Leach, caste is a unique phenomenon found only in India.
⦁ Classes depend mainly on economic differences between groupings of individuals— inequalities in possession and control of material resources—whereas in caste system
Characteristics and Functions of the Caste System
The caste system is characterized by rigid social stratification, endogamy, and hereditary occupations. Each caste has specific duties, rituals, and lifestyles. While the system was initially designed to organize society, it also led to social inequalities and discrimination. The primary functions of the caste system included maintaining social order and occupational specialization. However, it also had significant dysfunctions, such as social exclusion and economic disparity.
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non-economic factors such as influence of religion [theory of karma, rebirth and ritual (purity-pollution)] are most important.
⦁ Unlike castes or other types of strata, classes are not established by legal or religious provisions; membership is not based on inherited position as specified either legally or by custom. On the other hand, the membership is inherited in the caste system.
⦁ Class system is typically more fluid than the caste system or the other types of stratification and the boundaries between classes are never clear-cut. Caste system is static whereas the class system is dynamic.
⦁ In the class system, there are no formal restrictions on inter-dining and inter- marriage between people from different classes as is found in the caste system. Endogamy is the essence of caste system which is perpetuating it.
⦁ Social classes are based on the principle of achievement, i.e., on one’s own efforts, not simply given at birth as is common in the caste system and other types of stratification system. As such social mobility lmovement upwards and downwards) is much more common in the class structure than in the caste system or in other types. In the caste system, individual mobility from one caste to another is impossible
⦁ This is why, castes are known as closed classes (D. N. Majumdar). It is a closed system of stratification in which almost all sons end up in precisely the same stratum their fathers occupied. The system of stratification in which there is high rate of upward mobility, such as that in the Britain and United States is known as open class system. The view that castes are closed classes is not accepted by M. N. Srinivas (1962) and Andre Beteille (1965).
⦁ In the caste system and in other types of stratification system, inequalities are expressed primarily in personal relationships of duty or obligation—between lower- and higher-caste individuals, between serf and lord, between slave and master. On the other hand, the nature of class system is impersonal. Class system operates mainly through large-scale connections of an impersonal kind.
⦁ Caste system is characterised by ‘cumulative inequality’ but class system is characterised by ‘dispersed inequality.’
⦁ Caste system is an organic system but class has a segmentary character where various segments are motivated by competition (Leach, 1960).
⦁ Caste works as an active political force in a village (Beteille, 1966) but class does not work so.
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Dif’ erences between Class and Caste Systems! 7
⦁ The major difference between caste and class is that caste is almost a genetic idea — it is something that is passed down from generation to generation automatically. By contrast, a person’s class may be very different from that of his or her parents. Caste is automatically hereditary, class is not.
⦁ A second difference is that castes are “endogamous” — which means that people from one caste may not marry outside the caste. While it is often true that people of one class marry inside that class, there is no rule that says they must, as there is with caste.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CASTE SYSTEM
⦁ It continued the traditional social organization of India.
⦁ It has accommodated multiple communities by ensuring each of them a monopoly of a specific means of livelihood.
⦁ Provided social security and social recognition to individuals. It is the individual’s caste that canalizes his choice in marriage, plays the roles of the state-club, the orphanage and the benefits society. Besides, it also provides him with health insurance benefits. It even provides for his funeral.
⦁ It has handed over the knowledge and skills of the hereditary occupation of a caste from one generation to another, which has helped the preservation of culture and ensured productivity.
⦁ Caste plays a crucial role in the process of socialization by teaching individuals the culture and traditions, values and norms of their society.
⦁ It has also led to interdependent interaction between different castes, through ynyrnani relationships. Caste acted as a trade union and protected its members from the exploitation.
⦁ Promoted political stability, as xshntriyns were generally protected from political competition, conflict and violence by the caste system.
⦁ Maintained racial purity through endogamy.
⦁ Specialization led to quality production of goods and thus promoted economic development. For example, many handicraft items of India gained international recognition due to this.
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DYSFUNCTIONS OF CASTE SYSTEM
⦁ The caste system is a check on economic and intellectual advancement and a great stumbling block in the way of social reforms because it keeps economic and intellectual opportunities confined to a certain section of the population only.
⦁ It undermines the efficiency of labour and prevents perfect mobility of labour, capital and productive effort
⦁ It perpetuates the exploitation of the economically weaker and socially inferior castes, especially the untouchables.
⦁ It has inflicted untold hardships on women through its insistence on practices like child-marriage, prohibition of widow-remarriage, seclusion of women etc.
⦁ It opposes real democracy by giving a political monopoly to Kshatriyas in the past and acting as a vote bank in the present political scenario. There are political parties which solely represent a caste. eg: BSP was formed by Kanshi Ram mainly to represent SC, ST and OBC.
⦁ It has stood in the way of national and collective consciousness and proved to be a disintegrating rather than an integrating factor. Caste conflicts are widely prevalent in politics reservations in jobs,inter-caste marriages etc. eg: Demand for Jat reservation, agitation by Patidar community.
⦁ It has given scope for religious conversion. The lower caste people are getting converted into Islam and Christianity due to the tyranny of the upper castes.
⦁ The caste system by compelling an individual to act strictly in accordance with caste norms stands in the way of modernization, by opposing change.
IS THE CASTE SYSTEM UNIQUE TO INDIA?
The caste system is found in other countries like Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Caste- like systems are also found in countries like Indonesia, China, Korea, Yemen and certain countries in Africa, Europe as well.
But what distinguishes Indian caste system from the rest is the core theme of purity and pollution, which is either peripheral or negligible in other similar systems of the world. India is unique in some aspects.
⦁ India has had a cultural continuity that no other civilization has had. The ancient systems, religions, cultures of other civilizations have been mostly gone. In India, history is present and even the external empires mostly co-opted the system rather than changing them.
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⦁ The caste has been merged into a modern religion, making it hard to remove.
⦁ India has integrated multiple systems more easily. What is known as “caste” in Portuguese/ English is actually made of 3 distinct components — yati, mana, carrier. jati is an occupational identification. Gunn is an ethnic identification. Variia is a philosophical identification. These have been more tightly merged over the centuries.
⦁ In the world’s most transformative period — of the past 3 centuries, India spent most of it under European colonialism. Thus, India lost a lot of time changing. Most of the changes to the system came only in 1950 when India became a republic.
⦁ To summarize theoretically, caste as a cultural phenomenon (i.e., as a matter of ideology or value system) is found only in India while when it is viewed as a structural phenomenon, it is found in other societies too.
There are four sociological approaches to caste by distinguishing between the two levels of theoretical formulation, i.e., cultural and structural, and universalistic and particularistic. These four approaches are cultural-universalistic, cultural-particularistic, structural- universalistic and structural-particularistic.
⦁ Structural-particularistic view of caste has maintained that the caste system is restricted to the Indian society
⦁ Structural-universalistic category holds that caste in India is a general phenomenon of a closed form of social stratification found across the world.
⦁ The third position of sociologists like Ghurye who treat caste as a cultural universalistic phenomenon maintains that caste-like cultural bases of stratification are found in most traditional societies. Caste in India is a special form of status-based social stratification. This viewpoint was early formulated by Max Weber.
⦁ The cultural-particularistic view is held by Louis Dumont who holds that caste is found only in India.
THEORIES OF CASTE SYSTEM
Many western and non-Indian scholars have described the origin of castes in their own ways. Whereas Herbert Risley has attributed the racial differences to have been the cause, Nesfield and Ibbeston explained its origin through occupational factors. Abbe Dubois stressed on the role of the Brahmins in the creation of caste system. J. H. Hutton referred to the belief in ‘Mana’ as the origin of caste. In addition, various theories of the origin of caste system have been formulated.
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1.TRADITIONAL THEORY
This theory owes its origin to the ancient literature. It believes that caste has a divine origin. There are some references in the Vedic literature, wherein it is said that castes were created by Brahma, the supreme creator. He created different castes for the harmonious performance of various social functions for the maintenance of society. According to the ‘Purushasukta’ hymn of the Rig Veda, the Brahman is supposed to have been born from the mouth of the Supreme Being, the Kshatriyn from the arms, the Uoishyn from the thighs and the Sudra from the feet of the creator.
The emergence of four castes from different parts of Brahma’s body is only a symbolic description and is indicative of the work performed by each of them. It considers caste as a natural determined organisation of social functions and explains one’s birth in a particular caste in terms of the doctrine of Karma as well as dharma. Since the Brahmin has come out of the mouth, the seat of speech, his duty is to serve society as a teacher and also to preserve his cultural heritage. Arms symbolize strength. Hence, the duty of the Kshntripn is to defend the society from internal and external aggressions and rule the land. The duty of the Vaishyn who comes out of the thighs is to provide food for the members of society and look after its economic well being. The feet serve the body. So, the prime duty of the Sudra who is born out of the feet of ‘Brahma’ is to serve the members of other castes without grumbling or grudging. Thus the purpose of creation of each caste is to perform specific functions according to the creation of God Brahma and as such castes cannot be changed due to human will.
The supporters of the traditional theory of caste cite instances from the Manusmriti, ranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata in support of their argument of four-fold division of society. As regards the origin of a number of castes, it is believed that those have been formed as a result of the hypergamous or hypogamous marriages between the four
original ‘warms’.
The ‘Karma’ and ‘Dhnrma’ doctrines also explain the origin of caste system. Whereas the Karma doctrine holds the view that a man is born in a particular caste because of the result of his action in the previous incarnation, the doctrine of Dharma explains that a man who accepts the caste system and the principles of the caste to which he belongs, is living according to Dhnrmn. It is believed that the person living according to his Dharma is rewarded. On the contrary, the violation of one’s own Dharma yields punishment. Confirmation to one’s own dharma also remits on one’s birth in the rich high caste and violation gives a birth in a lower and poor caste.
Attempts have been made to explain the caste on the basis of qualities or ‘gurias’ which are interpreted in terms of two sets ‘yotri/cn’ and ‘rinmi/cn’. The ‘yotrikn’ quality is
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1. TRADITIONAL THEORY
This theory owes its origin to the ancient literature. It believes that caste has a divine origin. There are some references in the Vedic literature, wherein it is said that castes were created by Brahma, the supreme creator. He created different castes for the harmonious performance of various social functions for the maintenance of society. According to the ‘Purushasukta’ hymn of the Rig Veda, the Brahman is supposed to have been born from the mouth of the Supreme Being, the Kshatriyn from the arms, the Uoishyn from the thighs and the Sudra from the feet of the creator.
The emergence of four castes from different parts of Brahma’s body is only a symbolic description and is indicative of the work performed by each of them. It considers caste as a natural determined organisation of social functions and explains one’s birth in a particular caste in terms of the doctrine of Karma as well as dharma. Since the Brahmin has come out of the mouth, the seat of speech, his duty is to serve society as a teacher and also to preserve his cultural heritage. Arms symbolize strength. Hence, the duty of the Kshntripn is to defend the society from internal and external aggressions and rule the land. The duty of the Vaishyn who comes out of the thighs is to provide food for the members of society and look after its economic well being. The feet serve the body. So, the prime duty of the Sudra who is born out of the feet of ‘Brahma’ is to serve the members of other castes without grumbling or grudging. Thus the purpose of creation of each caste is to perform specific functions according to the creation of God Brahma and as such castes cannot be changed due to human will.
The supporters of the traditional theory of caste cite instances from the Manusmriti, ranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata in support of their argument of four-fold division of society. As regards the origin of a number of castes, it is believed that those have been formed as a result of the hypergamous or hypogamous marriages between the four
original ‘warms’.
The ‘Karma’ and ‘Dhnrma’ doctrines also explain the origin of caste system. Whereas the Karma doctrine holds the view that a man is born in a particular caste because of the result of his action in the previous incarnation, the doctrine of Dharma explains that a man who accepts the caste system and the principles of the caste to which he belongs, is living according to Dhnrmn. It is believed that the person living according to his Dharma is rewarded. On the contrary, the violation of one’s own Dharma yields punishment. Confirmation to one’s own dharma also remits on one’s birth in the rich high caste and violation gives a birth in a lower and poor caste.
Attempts have been made to explain the caste on the basis of qualities or ‘gurias’ which are interpreted in terms of two sets ‘yotri/cn’ and ‘rinmi/cn’. The ‘yotrikn’ quality is
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2.⦁ POLITICAL THEORY
Some thinkers are of the opinion that not race but political convenience and manipulation by those wanting to retain authority resulted in the origin of caste system. The Brahmins were solely responsible for creating and maintaining this system so as to retain authority. In the words of Dr. Ghurye “Caste is the Brahminic child of Indo-Aryans culture cradled in the land of Ganges and hence transferred to other parts of India by Brahminic prospectors.”
Abbe Dubois thought that the caste system is an ingenious device made by the &rahmtns for Brnhmtns. Brahmins imposed restriction on food and social intercourse to preserve their purity necessary for the sacerdotal functions. They also accorded high status to themselves and declared all others inferior to them. The Brahmins also held that “Whatever a Brahimin says is a social norm and the entire property of the society belongs to the Brahmins.” The salvation of individuals or society lied in the performance of religious rites by the Brahmin only. The &rahmtns even added the concept of spiritual merit of the king, through the priest or purohit in order to get the support of the ruler of the land.
However Hutton has made scratching attack on the Brahmanical theory of the origin of caste on two counts. First, it is not possible to accept this theory unless it is confirmed that Brahmins must have got the political power to implement such a scheme. Secondly, such a deep rooted social institution like caste could hardly be imposed by an administrative measure. Of course both the arguments of Hutton appear to be illogical because Kshatriyas have ruled over the land through the entire period of history and furthermore imposition of superiority over others by the &ra/imtns may not be possible through administrative measure. The best explanation may be the appeal to the religious sentiments of the people.
3⦁ THE THEORY OF MBA
J. H. Hutton has propounded the theory of ‘Gunn’ in the formation of castes. This has been supported by Roy, Rice and Swart also. ‘Tann’ is a supernatural power which possesses the capacity to do good or bad to people. The tribals believe that ‘Gunn’ is attached to objects, places and even to individuals. The tribal also believed that this mysterious impersonal power can be transmitted through contact and social intercourse.
Tribal belief in ‘Mana” is always accompanied by the belief in value of taboo. Each ‘Dana’ has its corresponding taboos. Taboos are required to provide protective measures. Taboos are imposed on commensality, inter-marriage, interaction, etc. to save the members of one
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tribe from the ‘Dana’ of the other tribe. Tribals consider the food of the other tribe perilous due to the belief that food and contacts may be infected with the dangerous soul matter of others. Hutton’s argument is that caste elements were existent in India before the Aryan invasion.
In his study of certain tribes east of the Naga Hills, Hutton found that in this area each village was an independent political unit and occupations were distributed by villages. Some villagers were adepts in pot-making. People belonging to other villages were weaving cloth. Some villages were having blacksmiths. The villages had interdependence on each other through barter system of their products. Hutton suggested that this has probably been the state of affairs throughout pre-Aryan India.
The exogamous clans started migrating from one village to another due to political, social and natural disturbances. The villages also welcomed such migration because it was beneficial for them in respect of the non-availability of particular trade. The migrants were not allowed to practise the profession of the village, where they got settled, because the professions were tabooed.
The tribals believed that if the strangers were allowed to practise the ancestral occupation of the villagers, that would displease the ancestors. Since the ancestors were believed to have possessed the ‘Mana’, they would destroy the crops and fruits of the earth. Hutton has also cited the ‘Mana’ principles in other religions like Buddhism, where it appears as ‘iddhi’. In Islam such beliefs are known as ‘Kudrat’. In Hinduism it is analogous to ‘Shakti.’
Thus, Hutton has come to the conclusion that the fear of ‘Mana’ led to the restrictions on occupation, food, drink and marriage, because it is believed that ‘Mana’ would be transmitted through such contracts. As a result caste system originated
Criticism
The theory of ‘Turin’ has been criticized on two counts.
⦁ First, India is not the only country where the belief in ‘Mana’ existed. But in no other parts of the world it created the caste system. Hence the belief that the theory that ‘Mana’ produced caste system appears to be misleading.
⦁ Secondly, there is no evidence supporting the existence of caste system in India alone.
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4⦁ RACIAL THEORY OF CASTE
(Herbert Risley’s theory of origin of caste) Herbert Risley is the most ardent exponent of racial theory of the origin of caste system. Other supporters of this theory are the scholars like Ghurye, Mazumdar, Westermarck and others. According to this theory caste system came into existence due to clash of cultures and the contact of races. The Aryans came to India as conquerors, because of their better complexion, physical appearance and built up of the body, in comparison with the non-Aryans, the Aryans placed themselves as a superior race over the non-Aryans.
Thus the Aryans considered the natives as inferior to them and maintained their own ideas and ceremonial purity. The Aryans got married to the non-Aryan women, but refused to give their own daughters in marriage to the non-Aryans. The offspring’s born out of such marriages were called the Chandal. The Chandals had the lowest position in society. Thus the irregular unions between races and racial superiority were held responsible for the origin of caste system in India. Risley has mentioned six processes of development of caste system.
⦁ Change in Traditional Occupation: When a caste or a sub-caste changes its traditional occupation and adopts a different one, it ultimately develops into a distinct caste.
⦁ Migration: In the past the transport and communication system was not developed. Therefore whenever a section of caste migrated from one region to the other, it faced difficulties in maintaining contacts with the earlier place. In course of time it was delinked with the parental caste.
⦁ Customary Changes: From the earliest times, the formation of new castes was based on the rejection of old custom and usages and acceptance of the new practices and habits.
⦁ Preservation of Old Practices: Some caste groups are interested in maintaining their old traditions and on those bases they separate themselves from the rest of society who follow relatively new customs and traditions. The caste groups preserving old patterns may take up new names. This results in the formation of new castes.
⦁ Getting into the folds of Hinduism: Certain tribes or the section of the tribes enter into the rank on Hinduism by
⦁ Changing their lineage,
⦁ By accepting the tenets of any school of Hindu religion,
⦁ By joining Hindu religion and by establishing relations with the Hindus without changing its name.
Caste in Independent India
Post-independence, India has made significant efforts to dismantle the caste system through constitutional provisions and affirmative action policies. Despite these efforts, caste-based discrimination persists in various forms. The interplay between caste and class has become more complex, leading to what some scholars describe as a ‘caste-class nexus.’
Theories Explaining the Caste System
Several theories have been proposed to explain the caste system. The traditional theory views it as a divine order, while the political theory examines it as a tool for social control. Modern theories, like the evolutionary theory, consider it a dynamic system that has evolved over time. Understanding these theories provides a comprehensive view of the caste system and its multifaceted impact on Indian society.
